}    10.  Z  :    Y7I 


S.  R.  S.  Doc.  61.  A.  I.  ! 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


STATES  RELATIONS  SERVICE. 


/ 

A.  C.  TRUE,  Director.  /  *  *■   . 


THE  PROPAGATION  AND  PRUNING  O^  PXANT& 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.1 

By  H.  P.  Babbows,  Specialist  m  Agricultural  Education. 
I.  PLANT  PROPAGATION. 

RELATION  OF  SUBJECT  TO  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

A  consideration  of  the  propagation  of  plants  is  a  suitable  introduction  to  the 
study  of  horticulture.  A  knowledge  of  practical  plant  propagation  will  be 
needed  in  fruit  growing,  vegetable  gardening,  floriculture,  and  landscape  garden- 
ing. It  is  asssumed  that  before  horticulture  is  taken  up  as  a  phase  of  plant 
husbandry  the  students  will  have  lessons  on  how  plants  grow,  either  as  part 
of  their  agriculture  or  as  a  phase  of  botany.  In  the  study  of  plant  propaga- 
tion there  is  abundant  opportunity  for  an  application  of  the  knowledge  of  plant 
growth  which  a  practical  course  in  botany  should  develop.  It  is  advisable  to 
have  students  in  horticulture  take  botany  as  a  prerequisite  to  the  subject  or 
have  it  the  same  year  horticulture  is  given.  If  the  latter  plan  prevails  there 
should  be  close  cooperation  and  correlation  between  the  teaching  of  the  two 
subjects. 

The  aim  in  teaching  this  subject  in  secondary  schools  should  be  to  establish 
the  general  principles  on  which  plant  propagation  is  based  and  to  make  prac- 
tical application  of  these  principles  to  those  forms  of  propagation  which  may 
be  applied  on  the  farm  and  about  the  house.  In  sections  where  practically  all 
nursery  stock  for  orchard  planting  is  purchased,  methods  of  budding  and 
grafting  employed  in  nursery  practice  need  be  given  little  emphasis.  Possibly 
in  such  sections  the  farmers  have  the  problem  of  top  working  undesirable 
varieties,  hence  a  need  for  paying  more  attention  to  methods  adapted  to  such 
a  purpose.  The  able  teacher  will  adapt  his  instruction  to  the  needs  of  his 
students  and  the  community  in  which  they  live. 

The  extent  of  the  course  will  vary  with  the  needs  of  the  community  and  the 
time  and  equipment  available.  In  communities  where  horticulture  is  important 
schools  giving  four  years  of  agriculture  and  having  a  greenhouse  and  nursery 
plats  may  give  a  special  course  in  plant  propagation  with  profit.  Such  course 
may  involve  from  one-fifth  to  one-half  of  a  unit  credit.  Schools  giving  but  a 
general  course  in  agriculture  or  plant  husbandry  may  be  able  to  devote  but  two 
or  three  lessons  to  the  subject. 

CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION. 

Use  of  reference  material. — The  subject  as  it  may  be  given  in  the  usual  high- 
school  course  in  horticulture  may  be  based  upon  Farmers'  Bulletin  157,  The 
Propagation  of  Plants.     The  bulletin  should  be  supplemented  with  special  ref- 

1  Prepared  under  the  direction  of  C.  H.  Lane,  chief  specialist  in  agricultural  education, 
States  Relations  Service. 
58956— 17 


erence  books  for  methods  important  in  the  community  which  are  not  included 
in  the  bulletin.  While  each  student  should  secure  a  copy  of  the  bulletin,  spe- 
cial assignments  may  be  made  to  individual  students  to  report  on  methods 
described  in  the  books  of  reference. 

Classification  of  methods. — The  following  classification  of  the  methods  of 
propagation  should  be  helpful  to  the  students  in  grasping  the  subject: 
I.  Sexual  propagation. 

1.  Seeds. 

2.  Spores. 

II.  Asexual  propagation. 

1.  Parts  intact — 

(a)  Suckers. 

(b)  Stolons. 

(c)  Layers,  tip,  mound,  and  vine. 

(d)  Approach  grafting — inarching. 

(e)  Division  of  crown. 

2.  Parts  detached — 

(a)   Specialized  buds;  bulbs,  bulblets,  corns,  tubers. 
(6)  Cuttings: 

1.  Herbaceous:  stem,  leaf,  tuber,  root. 

2.  Hardwood:  stem,  root. 

.(c)   Grafting:  whip,  cleft,  tongue,  bark,  splice,  veneer,  saddle, 

and  shield. 
(d)  Budding:  shield    (T-budding),  prong,  plate   (including  H- 

budding),  flute,  ring,  and  chip. 
Consideration  of  methods. — Little  time  should  be  given  to  a  consideration  of 
methods  which  are  not  to  be  applied  to  practice.  If  time  permits,  the  purpose 
of  all  the  forms  of  propagation  may  be  discussed  briefly,  with  examples  given 
of  each.  The  time  of  the  classroom  may  be  spent  to  best  advantage  in  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  principles  which  underlie  the  practice.  He  should  understand 
as  far  as  possible  why  certain  precautions  should  be  taken  in  practice  and 
why  special  methods  are  used  for  certain  plants.  Such  discussion  involves 
the  elements  of  plant  physiology. 

Use  of  illustrative  material. — Most  lessons  in  plant  propagation  may  be  given 
to  better  advantage  in  garden,  nursery,  and  greenhouse  than  in  the  classroom. 
If  the  school  is  located  near  commercial  greenhouses  or  nurseries,  advantage 
should  be  taken  of  such  places  in  organized  field  trips.  The  instructor  should 
make  arrangements  with  the  owners  and  plan  the  class  visits  when  that  work 
is  going  on  which  will  be  of  most  interest  and  value  to  the  class.  Fresh  mate- 
rial to  illustrate  various  forms  of  natural  propagation  and  herbaceous  cuttings 
should  be  brought  into  the  classrooms  and  used.  Permanent  mounts  to  illus- 
trate various  hardwood  cuttings,  grafting,  and  budding  may  be  made  a  part 
of  the  school  museum  for  classroom  vaSe. 

PRACTICUMS    AND    PROJECTS. 

A  school  greenhouse  and  nursery. — Plant  propagation  is  essentially  an  art  to 
be  learned  by  practice.  Although  many  farm  operations  may  be  assigned  as 
practicums  to  be  learned  upon  the  home  farm,  most  of  the  work  of  plant  propa- 
gation involves  such  a  degree  of  skill  and  watchful  care  that  it  needs  constant 
and  careful  supervision  not  usually  to  be  given  on  the  home  farm.  In  the 
Northern  States,  where  any  extensive  work  in  plant  propagation  covering  a 
wide  range  of  methods  and  materials  is  to  be  a  part  of  the  school  curriculum 


3 

a  greenhouse  is  necessary.  A  small  greenhouse  will  be  found  a  valuable  asset 
in  connection  with  much  of  the  work  in  plant  husbandry.  It  will  serve  to 
lengthen  the  season  for  practical  work  and  supply  living  material  for  plant 
study  throughout  the  year.  The  greatest  problem  in  sections  where  tempera- 
tures drop  very  low  is  keeping  up  sufficient  heat  at  night.  A  heating  system 
apart  from  the  school  building  is  advisable.  At  a  Vermont  high  school  the 
students  built  the  greenhouse  and  installed  a  heating  system.  One  of  the 
students  sleeps  at  the  greenhouse  during  the  winter  months.  An  electric  alarm 
system  installed  by  the  students  warns  him  when  the  temperature  drops  below 
normal.  The  production  of  flowers  and  plants  for  sale  will  aid  in  meeting  the 
expense  of  such  a  house.  Although  the  greenhouse  should  be  considered  a 
laboratory  and  used  primarily  for  instructional  purposes,  incidentally  it  may 
be  drawn  upon  to  supply  plants  for  decorative  purposes  as  well  as  for  class- 
room use  in  botany  and  horticulture. 

As  an  adjunct  to  the  greenhouse,  hotbeds,  cold  frames,  seed  beds,  and  nursery 
plats  will  be  needed  for  work  in  plant  propagation.  Such  beds  and  plats  will 
take  the  place  of  a  greenhouse  where  the  latter  is  not  feasible.  In  California 
and  the  Southwest  the  lath  house  is  also  an  important  part  of  the  equipment 
in  horticulture.  Lath  houses  and  lath  frames  for  beds  should  be  used  more  ex- 
tensively in  other  sections. 

In  plant  propagation  the  time  for  practice  should  be  at  least  equal  to  the  time 
for  class  work.  It  will  be  preferable  to  give  most  of  the  time  to  practical  work. 
The  time  given  and  the  nature  of  the  practice  will  depend  upon  the  school,  the 
course  given,  and  the  community.  For  most  work  students  should  have  some 
sort  of  aprons,  overalls,  or  jumpers,  so  that  fear  of  getting  their  clothes  soiled 
will  not  interfere  with  good  work.  Each  student  should  be  responsible  as  an 
individual  for  the  success  of  his  work  from  beginning  to  end.  As  far  as  prac- 
ticable those  forms  of  propagation  should  be  selected  in  which  results  may  be 
determined ;  the  exercise  should  not  be  considered  complete  until  it  is  deter- 
mined whether  the  plant  grows  or  not.  In  bedding  work  the  propagation  beds 
may  be  marked  off  and  equal  parts  assigned  to  individual  students.  Neatness 
and  accurate  care  should  be  insisted  on  from  the  start.  Skill,  as  shown  by 
deftness  and  rapidity,  may  be  gained  by  practice  after  habits  of  careful  accuracy 
are  developed. 

Some  schools  not  provided  with  a  greenhouse  or  nursery  are  making  their 
work  practical  by  using  commercial  concerns  about  the  school.  Arrangements 
are  made  by  the  teacher  for  the  student  to  do  a  certain  amount  of  work  involv- 
ing skill  under  the  direction  of  the  owner  or  trained  foremen  of  greenhouses 
and  nurseries  near  the  school.  Until  the  student  learns  the  process  it  is  con- 
sidered a  part  of  his  school  work  and  he  is  given  credit  for  it  as  a  part  of  his 
course  in  horticulture.  After  he  becomes  skilled  he  is  often  able  to  continue 
some  of  the  work  each  day,  receiving  pay  for  his  service. 

Making  hotbeds  and  coldframes. — Although  the  building  of  a  greenhouse 
may  be  beyond  most  classes,  there  are  few  schools  at  which  it  will  not  be  pos- 
sible to  make  some  kind  of  hotbeds  and  coldframes.  The  making  and  use  of 
these  devices  for  controlling  heat  will  furnish  good  practice  in  mechanic  arts 
as  well  as  horticulture.  Directions  for  the  making  and  care  of  hotbeds  and 
coldframes  may  be  obtained  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  195,  Annual  Flowering 
Plants.  The  making  of  lath  houses  and  frames  where  needed  will  make  suitable 
practicums. 

Minor  practicums, — Schools  not  able  to  furnish  well-organized  practice  at  the 
school  should  do  what  they  can  to  connect  such  practice  as  may  be  secured  for 


students  upon  the  home  farm  with  the  instructions  at  the  school.    In  connection 
with  home  work  the  following  practicums  may  be  carried  on  in  most  schools : 

(1)  Making  grafting  wax  according  to  directions  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  157, 
Propagation  of  Plants. 

(2)  Testing  seed:  Practicums  in  seed  testing  are  very  common  in  connection 
with  farm  crops  and  methods  are  well  understood.  In  connection  with  the  con- 
sideration of  seeding  as  a  means  of  propagation  the  germination  of  a  variety 
of  vegetable,  flower,  and  tree  seeds  may  be  undertaken  with  profit.  Directions 
for  testing  seed  may  be  obtained  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  428,  Testing  Farm  Seed 
in  the  Home  and  Rural  School. 

(3)  Making  seed  flats:  The  making  and  planting  of  seed  flats  and  window 
boxes  not  only  furnishes  simple  handicraft  work  but  also  supplies  equipment 
for  practice  and  study  in  developing  plants  from  seeds. 

Home  projects. — In  certain  localities,  especially  those  near  cities,  there  is  a 
market  for  plants  produced  by  seeding  in  greenhouses  and  hotbeds  or  produced 
by  some  form  of  asexual  propagation.  The  production  of  plants  for  sale  repre- 
sents a  rather  highly  specialized  phase  of  farming  and  involving  usually  a  high 
degree  of  skill,  makes  an  excellent  project  for  advanced  students.  The  extent 
to  which  the  student  enters  into  the  work  will  determine  whether  it  be  made 
his  major  project  or  not.  A  student  may  grow  some  plants  for  sale  as  a  minor 
project  in  connection  with  a  major  project  in  floriculture,  vegetable  gardening, 
or  the  growing  of  small  fruits.  The  growing  of  nursery  stock  for  orchard  trees 
and  ornamentals  will  not  make  a  suitable  project  as  a  rule,  because  it  involves 
too  long  a  time  and  the  student  can  not  compete  well  with  commercial  nurseries. 
Some  simple  specialty,  such  as  roses,  privet  for  hedges,  currants,  and  grapes, 
may  be  undertaken  safely  and  with  profit. 

II.  PRUNING. 

RELATION  OF  SUBJECT  TO  COURSE  OF  STUDT. 

Pruning,  like  plant  propagation,  is  a  phase  of  practical  horticulture  based  on 
a  knowledge  of  how  plants  grow.  Any  general  course  in  horticulture  should 
give  the  students  a  knowledge  of  the  underlying  principles  of  pruning  with 
practice  as  varied  and  as  extensive  as  time  will  permit.  Although  in  a  brief 
elementary  course  the  subject  must  necessarily  be  considered  in  a  very  general 
way,  as  the  work  in  horticulture  extends  more  definite  instruction  in  pruning 
should  be  given.  Rather  than  extend  general  lessons  in  pruning  or  to  give  a 
special  course  in  the  subject,  it  will  be  better  to  consider  pruning  in  connection 
with  different  phases  of  horticulture,  as  the  practice  of  pruning  is  so  inti 
mately  connected  with  general  culture.  In  a  course  in  fruit  growing  pruning 
of  fruit  trees  should  be  considered;  a  course  in  home  ground  ornamentation 
would  be  incomplete  without  some  attention  to  the  pruning  of  ornamentals, 
hedges,  and  shade  trees,  and  in  connection  with  floriculture  such  phases  of 
pruning  as  disbudding  should  be  considered.  If  the  course  in  fruit  growing 
precedes  the  other  courses,  the  underlying  principles  and  methods  of  general 
practice  may  be  taught  in  such  a  way  in  connection  with  the  pruning  of  fruit 
trees  that  only  a  brief  review  of  such  principles  will  be  necessary  in  connection 
with  their  application  in  the  other  courses. 

CLASSROOM  DISCUSSION. 

Relation  of  principles  to  practice. — There  is  probably  no  subject  in  the  agri- 
cultural curriculum  which  exemplifies  so  well  the  relation  of  principles  to  prac- 
tice, of  science  to  art,  as  does  pruning.    Although  pruning  is  essentially  an  art 


to  be  learned  by  practice,  yet  intelligent  practice  depends  upon  a  knowledge 
of  the  specific  plants  to  be  pruned  and  the  manner  in  which  they  adjust  them- 
selves to  new  conditions,  especially  to  the  new  condition  introduced  by  pruning. 
It  has  been  observed  that  foreign  laborers,  who  have  learned  to  prune  certain 
kinds  of  plants  by  the  apprenticeship  method  in  their  home  country,  find  diffi- 
culty in  adapting  their  methods  to  new  plants  and  new  conditions  in  this  coun- 
try ;  while  students  who  have  studied  the  elements  of  plant  physiology  and 
histology  in  relation  to  pruning,  as  a  rule  have  little  difficulty  in  learning  to 
prune  groups  of  plants  according  to  their  needs. 

Sequence  of  lessons. — Practice  in  pruning  should  have  a  definite  relation  to 
the  classroom  instruction.  Inasmuch  as  most  of  the  practice  in  pruning  will 
come  in  the  late  winter  and  early  spring,  a  general  discussion  of  pruning  may 
come  best  at  this  time  in  connection  with  a  course  in  fruit  growing.  Special 
application  to  other  phases  of  horticulture  may  come  at  any  time  in  connection 
with  special  courses  or  the  part  of  the  general  course  which  deals  with  the 
other  phases.  For  example,  the  lesson  on  pruning  ornamentals  may  come  in 
connection  with  the  improvements  of  the  home  grounds.  The  lesson  outlines 
which  follow  have  a  logical  order.  A  lesson  on  buds  and  the  bearing  habits  of 
trees  is  a  good  place  to  begin,  not  only  because  this  knowledge  is  essential  to 
an  understanding  of  the  principles  of  pruning  but  also  because  the  students 
may  begin  with  concrete  illustrative  material  which  is  very  interesting.  Practi- 
cal work  should  be  given  in  connection  with  the  lessons  on  principles  so  that 
the  students  will  have  concrete  experience  to  build  upon. 

Lesson  1. — A  Study  of  Buds. 

1.  What  the  bud  represents. 

2.  Fruit  buds  vs.  leaf  buds. 

3.  When  do  buds  form. 

4.  Arrangement  of  buds. 

5.  Adventitious  buds. 

(a)  Suckers  and  water  sprouts. 

6.  Bearing  habits  of  representative  trees. 

(a)  Apples  and  pears. 
(&)  Peaches  and  almonds. 

(c)  Plums,  apricots,  and  cherries. 

(d)  Walnuts  and  pecans. 

Lesson  2. — Why  Prune  Trees  ? 

1.  Is  pruning  a  devitalizing  process? 

(a)    Analogy    between    pruning    and    such    farm    operations    as 

thinning. 
(&)  Nature's  methods  of  pruning. 

2.  Directing  the  growth  of  a  plant. 

3.  Removing  dead  branches. 

4.  Checking  diseases. 

5.  Regulating  bearing  habits. 

6.  A  means  of  thinning  fruits  and  flowers. 

7.  Pruning  in  connection  with  top  working  and  planting. 

Lesson  3. — Principles  of  Pruning. 

1.  Disturbing  the  balance  in  growth. 

(a)  Effect  of  heavy  pruning  of  the  top. 

(b)  Effect  of  root  pruning. 

(c)  Influence  of  season. 

(d)  Plants  tend  to  resume  normal  habit. 


Lesson  3. — Principles  of  Pruning — Continued. 

2.  Influence  of  age  with  respect  to  pruning. 

(a)  Effect  of  pruning  young  trees. 
(&)  Effect  of  pruning  bearing  trees. 

3.  Effect  of  pruning  on  setting  of  fruit. 

(a)  Pruning  for  growth. 

(6)  Pruning  for  fruit  or  flowers. 

(c)  Checking  growth. 

(d)  Obstruction  of  sap. 

4.  Influence  of  climate. 

5.  Healing  of  wounds. 

Lesson  4. — General  Practices  of  Pruning, 

1.  Pruning  tools. 

(a)  Knives. 
(6)   Saws. 

(c)  Shears. 

(d)  Miscellaneous  devices. 

(e)  Tools  not  to  be  used — axes. 

2.  Ladders. 

3.  Using  the  knife  and  shears. 

4.  Removing  large  limbs — use  of  the  saw. 

5.  Treatment  of  wounds. 

6.  Removal  of  brush. 

Lesson  5. — Pruning  Young  Fruit  Trees. 

1.  Pruning  at  time  of  planting. 

(a)  Cutting  back  the  head. 
(6)  Trimming  the  roots. 

2.  Forming  the  head. 

3.  Specific  directions  for  successive  years  until  bearing  age  is  reached  of 

the  following: 
(a)  Apple,   (6)   pear,   (c)   peach,   (d)   plum,   (e)  cherry,   (/)   wal- 
nuts, pecans,  almonds,  apricots,  and  any  other  fruit  trees  of 
local  importance. 

4.  Pruning  young  trees  which  have  been  neglected. 

Lesson  6. — Pruning  Trees  in  Bearing. 

1.  Pruning  the  apple. 

2.  Pruning  the  pear. 

(a)   Standard. 

(6)  Dwarf. 

(c)   Control  of  blight. 

3.  Pruning  the  peach. 

4.  Pruning  the  plum  and  cherry. 

5.  Pruning  miscellaneous  trees  of  local  importance. 

6.  Pruning  in  relation  to  freezing  and  frost  injury. 

Lesson  7. — Renovating  Old  Orchards. 

1.  Possibilities  in  renovation. 

2.  Forming  new  heads. 

3.  After  treatment  of  renovated  trees. 

4.  Pruning  top-worked  trees. 

5.  Scraping  and  cleaning  in  relation  to  sanitation. 


Lesson  8. — Pruning  Small  Fruits. 

1.  Bearing  habits  of  grapes,  raspberries,  blackberries,  dewberries,  cur- 

rants, gooseberries,  etc. 

2.  Pruning  the  grape. 

(a)   Systems  of  pruning  American  grapes, 
(fr)   Systems  of  pruning  Vinifera  grapes. 

3.  Pruning  raspberries. 

4.  Pruning  blackberries  and  dewberries. 

5.  Pruning  gooseberries  and  currants. 

Lesson  9. — Pruning  Ornamentals  and  Shade  Trees. 

1.  Purposes  in  contrast  with  purpose  of  pruning  fruit  trees. 

2.  Pruning  for  symmetry. 

3.  Pruning  roses  and  other  flowering  shrubs. 

4.  Pruning  evergreens. 

5.  Pruning  deciduous  shade  trees. 

6.  Pruning  hedges. 

Lesson  10. — Practical  Tree  Surgery. 

1.  Relation  to  ordinary  pruning. 

2.  Antiseptic  treatment  of  wounds. 

3.  Preparation  of  cavities. 

4.  Use  of  cement  and  asphalt. 

5.  Guying  of  limbs. 

6.  Possibilities  in  commercial  work. 

Use  of  reference  material. — Although  general  references  on  horticulture  and 
fruit  growing  deal  with  pruning  as  a  rule,  wherever  the  subject  is  considered 
extensively  the  students  should  have  access  to  a  good  pruning  manual.  As  a 
basis  for  the  lessons  suggested  the  following  publications  of  this  department 
will  serve  well:  Farmers'  Bulletin  181,  Pruning,  for  general  principles  and 
practices  with  application  to  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  cherries,  grapes, 
raspberries,  blackberries,  currants,  gooseberries,  hedges,  street  trees,  and  flower- 
ing shrubs.  For  directions  for  renovating  an  old  orchard,  see  Farmers'  Bulletin 
491,  The  Profitable  Management  of  the  Small  Apple  Orchard  on  the  General 
Farm.  In  the  Yearbook  for  1913  will  be  found  material  for  lesson  10,  in  an 
article  entitled  "  Practical  Tree  Surgery."  More  specific  directions  for  pruning 
smal  fruits  will  be  found  in  the  following  Farmers'  Bulletins :  213.  Raspberries ; 
471,  Grape  Propagation,  Pruning,  and  Training;  643,  Blackberry  Culture;  709, 
Muscadine  Grapes ;  and  728,  Dewberry  Culture. 

In  connection  with  the  lesson  dealing  with  the  pruning  of  ornamentals, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  750,  Roses  for  the  Home,  will  be  found  helpful.  Although 
there  may  not  be  time  for  all  the  class  to  consider  all  of  the  special  references, 
special  assignments  may  be  made  to  individual  members  either  for  study  in 
connection  with  their  projects  or  for  special  reports  to  the  class. 

Use  of  illustrative  material. — The  lessons  should  start  out  with  an  abundance 
of  illustrative  material  on  hand.  Branches  of  different  classes  of  trees  and  fruit 
trees  of  different  bearing  habits  should  be  brought  into  the  classroom  as  a  con- 
crete basis  for  a  study  of  buds.  If  this  lesson  is  given  in  the  winter  or  early 
spring,  later,  when  the  buds  open  up,  a  field  trip  may  be  profitable  in  extending 
and  checking  up  on  this  study.  Students  should  be  encouraged  to  make  indi- 
vidual observations  in  connection  with  all  of  their  study  of  natural  phenomena 
and  verify  statements  found  in  books.  Sometimes  general  statements  may  not 
apply  in  the  locality.    For  example,  students  in  a  western  high  school  found 


8 

that  the  statement  generally  made  in  eastern  texts  that  apples  bear  fruit  only 
on  wood  2  years  old  or  older  did  not  hold  true,  as  they  found  abundant  cases 
where  fruit  set  on  1-year  wood.  There  are  few  subjects  which  will  develop 
interest  and  powers  of  observation  better  than  a  study  of  the  bearing  and 
flowering  habits  of  plants. 

Inasmuch  as  suitable  material  is  not  always  available  out  of  doors,  and  it 
is  not  always  convenient  to  take  the  class  to  the  orchard,  good  use  may  be 
made  of  photographs  and  charts  showing  the  steps  in  training  trees,  contrasting 
good  and  bad  pruning,  and  showing  habits  of  growth  of  different  varieties. 
Some  teachers  have  gone  a  step  further  and  have  had  ideal  trees  mounted  to 
show  the  forming  of  the  head  in  different  stages  of  development. 

Adaptation  to  local  conditions. — If  pruning  is  considered  in  the  upper  years  of 
the  secondary  school,  or  if  students  come  to  the  high  school  after  having  thor- 
ough work  in  nature-study  and  elementary  agriculture,  it  may  be  possible  to 
enter  at  once  into  a  study  of  the  underlying  principles  and  practices  of  pruning. 
In  most  cases,  however,  time  may  be  spent  very  profitably  in  a  preliminary 
study  of  buds.  This  is  but  an  example  of  the  general  principle  that  the  instruc- 
tion should  be  applied  to  the  needs  and  capacities  of  the  particular  set  of 
students  one  may  have.  In  a  like  manner,  the  course  should  be  adapted  to  the 
community.  There  is  little  use  of  considering  the  pruning  of  Vinifera  grapes 
in  most  sections  of  the  East,  while  in  some  sections  of  California  a  number  of 
lessons  may  be  spent  profitably  on  this  one  phase  of  pruning.  In  a  peach- 
growing  section  the  principles  of  pruning  should  be  learned  chiefly  in  the 
application  to  the  pruning  of  peaches,  while  in  another  section  one  of  the  big 
problems  will  be  the  control  of  pear  blight  by  means  of  pruning.  Publications 
of  State  departments  and  colleges  should  be  used  in  adapting  the  lessons  to 
meet  local  conditions.  The  instructor  should  make  a  study  of  local  practices 
with  a  view  of  extending  the  good  and  checking  the  bad. 

PRACTICAL  WORK. 

Home  and  school  practicums. — As  suggested,  there  should  be  ample  oppor- 
tunity for  practical  work  in  connection  with  the  lessons.  Such  work  may  be 
done  either  by  the  class  as  a  whole  upon  the  school  farm,  or  neighboring  farms 
in  the  community,  or  as  individual  practicums  by  the  students  at  home.  If  the 
class  is  not  too  large  for  efficient  supervision,  there  is  economy  in  having  the 
class  as  a  whole,  or  sections  of  it,  for  group  work.  The  work  should  be  an- 
nounced a  day  before  so  that  students  may  come  prepared  with  suitable  clothing 
for  field  work.  If  the  school  does  not  own  a  sufficient  number  of  tools  for  each 
student,  the  students  should  bring  them  from  home.  Although  it  will  be  neces- 
sary for  the  teacher  to  give  abundant  demonstration  of  the  use  of  the  tools, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  the  students  will  get  out  of  the  work  largely  in 
direct  proportion  to  what  they  put  into  it  in  practice.  A  good  teacher  will  keep 
the  students  busy.  It  may  happen  that  some  of  the  students  may  be  more 
or  less  efficient  in  the  use  of  pruning  tools  and  hence  have  little  interest  in 
the  elementary  work.  It  will  be  better  for  all  concerned  if  such  students  are 
used  to  aid  in  directing  the  work  of  others. 

If  there  is  opportunity  for  any  phase  of  pruning  at  home  while  the  subject 
is  being  considered  in  school,  an  effort  should  be  made  by  the  teacher  to  connect 
this  work  with  the  classroom  instruction  and  direct  it  in  such  a  way  that  it 
will  have  educational  value.  Where  such  may  be  done,  this  work  should  be 
accepted  in  lieu  of  school  work,  or  in  some  other  way  given  credit.  The  class 
should  take  advantage  of  any  opportunity  to  do  necessary  pruning  which  will 


9 

involve  needed  practice,  whether  the  work  is  at  school,  at  home,  in  the  village, 
or  on  neighboring  farms.  After  the  students  have  made  a  good  start  in  any 
phase  of  pruning  the  instructor  should  help  to  secure  odd  jobs  of  pruning  for 
them  which  they  may  do  outside  of  school  hours  for  remuneration. 

The  following  practicums  are  suggested  as  fitting  best  with  the  lessons  out- 
lined: 

1.  Pruning  in  connection  with  planting. — Such  work  is  really  incidental  to 
planting  and  should  come  in  connection  with  practice  in  planting. 

2.  Pruning  young  fruit  trees. — As  much  practice  as  may  be  secured  should 
be  given  in  starting  1  and  2  year  old  trees  of  different  kinds,  according 
to  the  needs  and  ideals  of  the  district.  Although  it  may  not  be  possible  for  the 
class  or  any  individual  member  to  follow  up  this  pruning  year  by  year  until 
the  tree  is  in  bearing,  practice  should  be  given  with  young  trees  of  different 
ages  which  have  been  pruned  properly  before.  Practice  should  also  be  given 
with  trees  which  have  been  neglected  or  improperly  pruned. 

3.  Pruning  hearing  trees. — Practice  in  pruning  bearing  trees  should  be  limited 
only  by  the  time  and  material  available.  There  should  be  opportunity  for  prac- 
tice on  trees  with  such  diverse  habits  and  needs  as  the  apple  and  the  peach  in 
sections  where  both  are  grown. 

4.  Pruning  neglected  trees. — Although  in  many  sections  of  the  West  the  prob- 
lems of  pruning  center  about  young  orchards  and  bearing  trees  which  have  had 
regular  pruning,  in  many  sections  of  the  East  the  chief  concern  in  pruning  is  to 
put  neglected  orchards  into  shape  for  profitable  production.  In  such  sections 
most  of  the  practice  should  be  with  old  trees.  Pruning  of  such  trees  may  be 
correlated  profitably  with  practice  in  top  working. 

5.  Pruning  small  fruits. — Practice  in  pruning  small  fruits  may  come  very 
well  in  connection  with  lessons  on  the  culture  of  small  fruits  as  it  is  related  so 
closely  with  systems  of  culture  and  training.  As  suggested,  the  practice  in 
pruning  small  fruits  will  depend  upon  the  type  of  fruits  grown  as  well  as  the 
systems  of  training  adapted  best  to  the  section  in  which  the  school  is  located. 

6.  Pruning  ornamentals  and  hedges. — Practical  work  in  pruning  ornamentals 
and  hedges  should  be  given  in  connection  with  the  improvement  of  the  home 
grounds.  If  the  school  grounds  are  planted  as  all  rural  school  grounds  should 
be,  there  will  be  opportunity  for  practice  at  the  school. 

7.  Pruning  shade  trees. — The  pruning  of  shade  trees  may  also  come  in  con- 
nection with  the  home  and  school  grounds.  There  will  be  need  for  caution  and 
careful  supervision  in  giving  the  students  practice  with  shade  trees  after  they 
have  had  training  with  fruit  trees.  In  some  cases  the  agricultural  students  of 
rural  high  schools  have  taken  care  of  the  trees  of  the  village  parks  and  streets 
and  have  thus  secured  considerable  practice  in  pruning  and  at  the  same  time 
developed  a  spirit  of  community  service. 

8.  Practical  tree  surgery. — Closely  related  to  the  general  pruning  of  shade 
trees  is  the  repair  of  large  trees  which  have  become  broken  and  hollow.  It 
may  not  be  possible  for  secondary  students  to  do  any  extensive  work  along 
this  line,  yet  they  may  apply  some  simple  preventive  measures,  such  as  guying. 
Further  practice  along  this  line  should  depend  much  upon  the  teacher's  ability 
to  direct  the  work. 

Projects. — Extensive  work  in  pruning  may  be  involved  in  either  class  projects 
or  individual  home  projects  of  a  more  general  nature.  If  the  class  undertakes 
to  renovate  a  neighboring  orchard  or  to  care  for  the  town  park  such  a  project 
would  doubtlessly  involve  considerable  pruning  as  well  as  spraying  and  general 
care.  Likewise  a  student  in  connection  with  a  home  project  in  any  form  of 
fruit  production  or  home-ground  ornamentation  will  have  opportunity  for  a 


10 

good  deal  of  practical  pruning.  Inasmuch  as  the  renovation  of  an  old  orchard  is 
very  largely  a  question  of  judicious  pruning,  the  following  outline  is  suggestive 
of  a  home  project  which  will  involve  an  application  of  much  that  is  learned  in 
the  class  work  and  school  practice  in  pruning. 

RENOVATION  OF  AN  OLD  ORCHARD. 

A  DEMONSTRATION   PROJECT. 

I.  Shall  I  undertake  to  renovate  an  orchard  as  my  project? 

1.  Am  I  willing  to  undertake  a  project  with  little  hope  of  immediate 

financial  reward? 

2.  Will  it  not  be  worth  while  to  gain  practical  experience  in  or- 

chard management? 

3.  Will  it  not  be  worth  while  to  demonstrate  to  the  community  the 

value  of  modern  methods? 

4.  May  I  not  make  arrangements  whereby  I  may  share  in  the  future 

profits  which  may  result  from  my  work? 
II.  Is  the  orchard  worth  renovating? 

1.  Are  the  trees  too  old? 

2.  Does  vigorous  growth  indicate  a  good  root  system? 

3.  Is  there  a  good  stand  of  trees? 

4.  Are  the  trees  of  a  variety  known  to  be  profitable? 

5.  Can  I  control  all  pests  which  may  prevail? 
III.  How  shall  I  prune  the  orchard? 

1.  Do  I  understand  the  principles  underlying  the  pruning  of  fruit 

trees  ? 

2.  What  tools  will  be  required  for  my  pruning  work? 

3.  Can  I  use  the  pruning  shears  with  dexterity? 

4.  Can  I  remove  large  limbs  properly  by  using  the  saw? 

5.  What  time  of  the  year  shall  I  do  my  pruning? 

6.  Will  it  be  necessary  to  start  new  heads  on  the  trees  by  "  de- 

horning "  ? 

7.  Will   it  be   necessary   to   remove   a   great   many   water   sprouts, 

suckers,  diseased  and  dead  branches? 

8.  What   treatment   shall    I    give   wounds   left   in   removing   large 

branches  ? 

9.  How  shall  I  treat  the  rough  trunks  that  they  may  not  harbor 

pests? 
10.  What  part  shall  pruning  play  later  in  keeping  my  trees  in  shape 
and  as  an  aid  toward  producing  fine  fruit? 
IV.  How  can  I  change  the  trees  to  a  more  desirable  variety? 

1.  Do  I  understand  the  principles  underlying  budding  and  grafting? 

2.  Are  my  trees  in  such  shape  that  top- working  will  be  profitable? 

3.  What  method  of  top- working  shall  I  use? 

4.  Can  I  make  a  successful  cleft  graft  and  whip  graft? 

5.  Can  I  do  ordinary  budding  with  dexterity? 

6.  At  what  time  of  the  year  shall  I  graft  or  bud  my  trees? 

7.  What  variety  shall  I  use? 

V.  What  fertilizing  shall  I  give  the  orchard? 

1.  Do  I   understand  the  function  of  the  fertilizing  elements  and 

their  relation  to  tree  growth? 

2.  If  severe  pruning  has  stimulated  a  vigorous  growth,  will  the 

trees  need  nitrogen? 


11 

V.  What  fertilizing  shall  I  give  the  orchard? — Continued. 

3.  Will  the  application  of  fertilizers  containing  phosphoric  acid  and 

potash  be  beneficial? 

4.  What  is  the  cheapest  and  best  form  in  which  I  can  apply  the  ele- 

ments needed? 

5.  What  are  the  objections  to  using  barnyard  and  green  manures 

the  first  year  after  the  trees  have  been  cut  back  severely? 

6.  When  and  how  shall  I  apply  fertilizers? 
VI.  How  shall  I  cultivate  the  orchard? 

1.  What  are  the  purposes  of  cultivation? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  of  cultivation  over  leaving  the  orchard 

in  sod? 
2.  May  it  be  advisable  at  any  time  to  leave  an  orchard  in  sod? 

4.  What  implements  will  be  required   for  the  cultivation  of  the 

orchard? 

5.  Am  I  able  to  do  the  plowing,  harrowing,  and  cultivating  which 

may  be  necessary? 

6.  When  should  cultivation  cease? 
VII.  Shall  I  use  a  cover  crop? 

1.  What  is  the  distinction  between  a  cover  crop  and  the  practice  of 

intercropping? 

2.  What  important  purposes  do  cover  crops  serve? 

3.  What  crops  are  suitable  for  the  purpose? 

4.  What  crop  shall  I   use  and  how  shall  I  manage  it  to  secure 

maximum  returns? 
VIII.  How  can  I  control  orchard  pests? 

1.  What  equipment  will  I  need  for  spraying? 

2.  Can  I  make  Bordeaux  mixture  and  lime  sulphur  sprays  and  ap- 

ply them  in  such  a  way  as  to  control  fungous  diseases? 

3.  Can  I  use  lead  arsenate  and  Paris  green  effectively  in  the  control 

of  biting  insects? 

4.  Can  I  control  insects  with  sucking  mouth  parts,  such  as  aphids 

and  San  Jose  scale? 

5.  Do  I  know  the  life  histories  and  habits  of  the  insects  I  must 

control? 

6.  What  may  I  do  to  supplement  spraying  in  the  control  of  orchard 

pests? 

7.  What  may  I  do  to  get  my  neighbors  to  cooperate  with  me  in  the 

control  of  orchard  pests? 

8.  Will  it  pay  me  to  buy  a   spraying  outfit,  or  will  it  be  more 

profitable  to  hire  the  spraying  done? 

IX.  Shall  I  thin  my  fruit? 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  practice? 

2.  What  objections  are  there  against  it? 

3.  Do  I  understand  the  details  of  thinning  that  I  may  practice  it 

efficiently? 

X.  How  shall  I  harvest  my  crop? 

1.  What  equipment  will  I  need  for  picking? 

2.  When  is  the  fruit  ready  to  pick? 

3.  Do  I  understand  the  details  of  picking  that  I  may  practice  it 

efficiently  ? 

4.  If  I  need  help  in  picking,  can  I  manage  the  pickers  to  secure 

the  best  results? 


UNIVERSITY  OF  FLORIDA 


12 


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XI.  How  shall  I  market  my  crop? 

1.  Shall  1  store  my  fruit  or  sell  it  directly  from  the  orchard? 

2.  What  preparations  must  I  make  for  grading  and  packing? 

3.  What  kind  of  package  shall  I  use? 

4.  What  system  of  grading  and  packing  shall  I  follow? 

5.  Do  I  understand  the  details  of  grading  and  packing  that  I  may 

do  it  myself  or  supervise  it  efficiently? 

6.  What  plans  must  I  make  for  marketing  that  I  may  get  maximum 

returns? 

7.  What  am  I  going  to  do  with  the  fruit  that  does  not  grade  up  to 

standard? 
Issued  September  20,  1917. 


WASHINGTON  :  GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  :  1917 


